“We are rapidly entering a time when nearly anyone can have his or her genome sequenced,” said Michael Snyder, PhD, professor and chair of genetics at Stanford. “However, the bulk of the differences among individuals are not found in the genes themselves, but in regions we know relatively little about. Now we see that these differences profoundly impact protein binding and gene expression.”

Snyder is the senior author of two papers — one in Science Express and one in Nature — exploring these protein-binding differences in humans, chimpanzees and yeast. Snyder, the Stanford W. Ascherman, MD, FACS, Professor in Genetics, came to Stanford in July 2009 from Yale, where much of the work was conducted.

Genes, which carry the specific instructions necessary to make proteins do the work of the cell, vary by only about 0.025 percent across all humans. Scientists have spent decades trying to understand how these tiny differences affect who we are and what we become. In contrast, non-coding regions of the genome, which account for approximately 98 percent of our DNA, vary in their sequence by about 1 to 4 percent. But until recently, scientists had little, if any, idea what these regions do and how they contribute to the “special sauce” that makes me, me, and you, you.

Now Snyder and his colleagues have found that the unique, specific changes among individuals in the sequence of DNA affect the ability of “control proteins” called transcription factors to bind to the regions that control gene expression. As a result, the subsequent expression of nearby genes can vary significantly.

“People have done a lot of work over the years to characterize differences in gene expression among individuals,” said Snyder. “We’re the first to look at differences in transcription-factor binding from person to person.” What’s more, by selectively breeding, or crossing, yeast strains, Snyder and his colleagues found that many, but not all, of these differences in binding and expression levels are heritable.

In the Science Express paper, which will be published online March 18, Snyder and his colleagues compared the binding patterns of two transcription factors in 10 people and one chimpanzee. They identified more than 15,000 binding sites across the genome for the transcription factor called NF-kB and more than 19,000 sites for another factor called RNA PolII. They then looked to see if every site was bound equally strongly by the proteins, or if there were variations among individuals.

They found that about 25 percent of the PolII sites and 7.5 percent of the NF-kB sites exhibited significant binding differences among individuals — in some cases greater than two orders of magnitude from one person to another. (For comparison, the binding differences between the humans and the chimpanzee were about 32 percent.) Many of these binding differences could be traced to differences in sequences or structure in the protein binding sites, and several were directly correlated to changes in gene expression levels.

“These binding regions, or chunks, vary among individuals,” said Snyder, “and they have a profound impact on gene expression.” In particular, the researchers found that several of the variable binding regions were near genes involved in such diseases as type-1 diabetes, lupus, leukemia and schizophrenia.

The researchers confirmed and extended their findings in the Nature paper, which will be published online March 17. In this study, they used yeast to determine that many of the binding differences and variations in gene expression levels in individuals are passed from parent to progeny, and they identify several control proteins that vary — a study that would have been impossible to perform in humans.

“We conducted the two studies in parallel,” said Snyder, “and found the same thing. Many of the binding sites differed. When we mapped the areas of difference, we found that they were associated with key regulators of variation in the population. Together these two studies tell us a lot about the so-called regulatory code that controls variation among individuals.”

The research in the Science Express study was supported by the National Institutes of Health, the European Molecular Biology Laboratory and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Medical Fellows Program. The research in the Nature study was supported by the National Institutes of Health. In addition to Snyder, other Stanford researchers involved in the two studies include postdoctoral scholars Fabian Grubert, PhD; Minyi Shi, PhD; and Manoj Hariharan, PhD; and graduate student Konrad Karczewski.

However, such large scale traditional manufacturing is only one part of the story. London is also strong in high technology manufacturing like aerospace and computing, as well as precision engineering and pharmaceuticals. With its highly skilled workforce, much research and development is undertaken in London for products that are manufactured elsewhere, in other parts of the UK and overseas. While many large, global companies have a manufacturing presence in London, there are also smaller firms often producing high value, cutting edge products.

There are a wide range of different jobs available in manufacturing and engineering. With increased mechanisation and use of technology, the need for physical strength once required by heavy industry has been replaced in most cases with a need to understand IT, operate specialist machinery and understand the systems and processes involved in producing goods.

Because of the complex nature of many manufacturing processes, an attention to detail and the ability to work in a team are important to anyone hoping to work in this industry. Because every manufacturing process is different, many employers expect to train their workforce on the job. There are also government-backed training schemes like Apprenticeships which allow students to combine work with training. There are courses available that can train you in skills appropriate to many different types of manufacturing, like warehouse management, logistics and health and safety.

If you are interested in working in more technical areas of the engineering process, you may wish to consider proceeding into higher education and studying a subject related to a specific field. There are also many courses available at college level that you may wish to consider.

To cater to the needs of health centers across India, various career institutes have, therefore, started offering hospital administration courses in India. Career training in hospital management helps the students to pursue two goals in life, first of earning a good salary package and second offering services to the mankind.

Hospital Administration Courses

There are at present quite a good number of institutes that offer various hospital management courses in India. In order to regulate the standard of hospital management courses, the Medical Council of India is now taking initiative to make the curriculum uniform.

While some reputed medical colleges are offering MD courses in Hospital Administration, Madurai Kamraj University and some other institutes have also started offering 2-year full time MBA course in Hospital Administration. While some institutes are offering certificate and diploma courses in hospital management, you can also pursue short – term distance learning courses in hospital management. The Indian Society of Health Administrators (ISHA) offers one year Distance Learning Programme in hospital administration and nursing administration. The Tamil Nadu Open University also offers 2-year distance learning MBA in Hospital

Eligibility for Hospital Management Courses

The eligibility criteria would vary according to the course and institute. However, students from non-medical background can also take up hospital administration courses.

Scope of Hospital Management Courses in India

The importance of health care can never diminish and the number of institutes providing health care is only increasing. There are more than two and half lakhs various health care institutes that require hospital administrators in India The growing need of professionalism would only increase the importance of hospital management courses in India. As along with the government various private hospitals are today competing to provide first class health care services, the demand of professional hospital administrators are rising tremendously.